Native American Heritage Month

November is Native American Heritage Month. This is the time to recognize the experiences and contributions of the first Americans. Beginning in 1986, November 23-30 was designated "American Indian Week." In 1990, it was elevated to a month long recognition. November was chosen to coincide with the end of the traditional harvest season and Thanksgiving.

Native American population by county. 

According to the 2010 Census there were 5,220,579 people of American Indian or Alaskan Native heritage residing in the US that year. That is 1.7% of the total population and a 26.7% increase since the 2000 census.

Timeline of Native American History
Click the links below to find library and online resources about each topic. 
Dates listed before 1492 are estimates, and shouldn't be considered exact. 

15,000 BC - Ancestors of Native Americans migrated from Asia to North America via the Beringia land bridge during the last ice age. In recent decades archaeological and DNA research has found evidence that:

• humans may have arrived in the Americas thousands of years before 15,000 BC, 
• they may have come by boat as well as overland, and
• some may have arrived via a European route.

Many Native Americans do not accept the Beringia Strait Theory as most Native American tribal origin stories, passed down orally for generations, do not provide evidence for such a journey.
New Evidence for the Pleistocene Peopling of the Americas by Alan Lyle Bryan
Quest for the Origins of the First Americans by E. James Dixon

9000 BC - Beginning of the Clovis Culture. Named from the distinctive spear points first discovered near Clovis, New Mexico in the 1930s but have since been found across North America.
Across Atlantic Ice: The Origin of America's Clovis Culture by Dennis J. Stanford
Clovis Blade Technology by Michael B. Collins
New Perspectives on the First Americans by Bradley Thomas Lepper

3500 BC - The oldest mound complex, Watson Brake, was built near modern day Monroe, Louisiana. The Mound Building cultures created a variety of mound complexes throughout the Midwest and Southeast United States, including eastern Texas.
Native Americans before 1492: The Moundbuilding Centers of the Eastern Woodlands by Lynda Shaffer
Mound Builders of Ancient America by Robert Silverberg

Serpent Mound in Southwest Ohio.
By Timothy A. Price and Nichole I.; uploaded by the authors. (Part of the archive Image:Serpent Mound.jpg) [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html), CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/) or CC BY 2.5 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5)], via Wikimedia Commons

2000 BC - Native Americans began creating pictographs and petroglyphs around Seminole Canyon, Texas. Many examples of Indian Rock Art are located across the United States.
Painters in Prehistory: Archaeology and Art of the Lower Pecos Canyonlands by Harry J. Shafer
The Petroglyphs and Pictographs of Missouri by Carol Diaz-Granados
Rock Art of the Lower Pecos by Carolyn E. Boyd
Rock Art of the Upper Ohio Valley by James L. Swauger

Petroglyph in Panther Cave near Del Rio, TX.
By Maekju (Own work) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

700 - Cahokia, the largest Native American city north of Mexico, was constructed. It was abandoned around 1250. It is located in southwest Illinois across the Mississippi river from present day Saint Louis, Missouri.
The Cahokia Mounds by Warren King Moorehead
The Ascent of Chiefs: Cahokia and Mississippian Politics in Native North America by Timothy R. Pauketat

1200 - Ancestral Puebloans (also known as the Anasazi, but contemporary Puebloans do not prefer this term) built the Cliff Palace located in Southwest Colorado. It was abandoned by 1300.
Anasazi Places: The Photographic Vision of William Current by Jeffrey Cook
The Lost World of the Old Ones: Discoveries in the Ancient Southwest by David Roberts
Mound Builders & Cliff Dwellers by Time-Life Books

The Cliff Palace at Mesa Verde National Park in Colorado.
By Ken Lund from Las Vegas, Nevada, USA [CC BY-SA 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0)],
via Wikimedia Commons

1450 - The Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, and Seneca tribes formed the Iroquois Confederacy, with a representative form of government that may have influenced the creators of the US Constitution. The Tuscarora tribe joined in 1722. Early French explorers called them Iroquois, they call themselves Haudenosaunee. The date of their founding is disputed. Some say it may have been as early as 1150. The Haudenosaunee believe their confederacy has existed since time immemorial.
The Great Law and the Longhouse: a Political History of the Iroquois Confederacy by William N. Fenton
The Iroquois and the Founding of the American Nation by Donald A. Grinde
The Ordeal of the Longhouse: the Peoples of the Iroquois League in the era of European colonization by Daniel K. Richter
Treaty of Canandaigua 1794: 200 Years of Treaty Relations between the Iroquois Confederacy and the United States by Irving Powless

1527-43 - Spanish explorations offer early accounts of various Native American tribes in southeast and southwest US. Conflicts, animals, plants, and diseases brought by these explorers had a dramatic impact on local tribes.
The De Soto Chronicles: the Expedition of Hernando de Soto to North America in 1539 - 1543 by Lawrence A. Clayton et. al.
Documents of the Coronado Expedition, 1539 - 1542 by Richard Flint & Shirley Cushing Flint
We Came Naked and Barefoot: the Journey of Cabeza de Vaca across North America by Alex D. Krieger

1598 - Spanish colonized New Mexico and violently suppressed the Pueblos at Acoma.
The Habit of Empire by Paul Horgan
The Origin Myth of Acoma Pueblo by Edward Proctor Hunt

1607 - English colonized Jamestown, Virginia and came into contact with Pocahontas and her father Powhatan (his name was Wahunsunacock, he is known as Powhatan because of an early English misunderstanding. Powhatan is the name of the people he governed).
The Journals of Captain John Smith: a Jamestown Biography by John Smith
Powhatan's World and Colonial Virginia: a Conflict of Cultures by Frederic W. Gleach
The True Story of Pocahontas by Linwood Custalow

Portrait of Pocahontas made in 1616.
Simon van de Passe [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

1609-14 - First of three Anglo-Powhatan Wars between English settlers at Jamestown and the Powhatan Confederacy.
The Divided Dominion: Social Conflict and Indian Hatred in Early Virginia by Ethan A. Schmidt
Lethal Encounters: Englishmen and Indians in Colonial Virginia by Alfred A. Cave

1620 - English settlers established Plymouth Colony and encountered Squanto (Tisquantum), an English speaking member of the Wampanoag tribe. His assistance was essential for the success of the colony.
A Great & Godly Adventure: the Pilgrims & the Myth of the First Thanksgiving by Godfrey Hodgson
Squanto and the First Thanksgiving by Eric Metaxas
Squanto, Friend of the Pilgrims by Clyde Robert Bulla

1636-37 - English settlers in Massachusetts defeat the Pequots in the Pequot War.
A Brief History of the Pequot War by John Mason
The Pequot War by Alfred A. Cave

1675-76 English settlers defeated the Wampanoags, and their allies, in King Philip's War.
Buried in Shades of Night: Contested Voices, Indian Captivity, and the Legacy of King Philip's War by Billy J. Stratton
King Philip's War: Colonial Expansion, Native Resistance, and the end of Indian Sovereignty by Daniel R. Mandell

1680 - Pueblo Indians revolt against Spanish rule in New Mexico. The Spanish returned in 1691.
The Pueblo Revolt: The Secret Rebellion that Drove the Spaniards out of the Southwest by David Roberts
What Caused the Pueblo Revolt of 1680? by David J. Weber

1729-30 - Natchez tribe resisted French colonization in Louisiana. The French retaliated with a war of extinction.
French-Indian Relations on the Southern Frontier, 1699-1762 by Patricia Dillon Woods
Natchez Country: Indians, Colonists and the Landscapes of Race in French Louisiana by George Edward Milne

1776-83 - During the American Revolution, some Native American tribes sided with the US while most sided with the British or remained neutral.
Forgotten Allies: the Oneida Indians and the American Revolution by Joseph T. Glatthaar
Joseph Brant, 1743-1807, Man of Two Worlds by Isabel Thompson Kelsay

Portrait of Joseph Brant (Thayendanegea) painted in 1776. Mohawk military leader who led British attacks against Americans during the American Revolution. He moved to Canada after the war was over. George Romney [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons.

1778 - United States government signed its first treaty with a Native American tribe, the Delawares.

1790 - Congress passes the Intercourse Act, which states that ownership of Indian land cannot be transferred from tribes unless agreed to by a treaty with the federal government.

1790-95 - United States defeated the Miami tribe and their allies for control of Ohio. Native Americans forced to give up their claims to most of Ohio through the Treaty of Greenville.
President Washington's Indian War: the Struggle for the Old Northwest, 1790-1795 by Wiley Sword

1804-06 - Sacagawea, a Shoshone woman, assisted Lewis and Clark in their exploration of the American west.
Interpreters with Lewis and Clark: the Story of Sacagawea and Toussaint Charbonneau by W. Dale Nelson

1807-11 - Shawnee brothers Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa created a confederacy of northwest Indian tribes in Indiana, to form a united resistance against US encroachment on their lands. Their forces were defeated at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811.
Tecumseh and the Quest for Indian Leadership by R. David Edmunds

1813-14 - US forces, under the command of Andrew Jackson, defeated the Creek Indians in Alabama.
Tohopeka: Rethinking the Creek War and the War of 1812 by Kathryn E. Holland Braund

1817-18 - First of three wars between the US and the Seminole tribe in Florida.
The Seminole Wars: America's Longest Indian Conflict by John Missall and Mary Lou Missall

1821 - Sequoyah created a syllabary for the Cherokee language. You can learn the Cherokee language via our library's subscription to the Mango Languages database.
Sequoyah: the Cherokee Man Who Gave his People Writing by James Rumford
Sequoyah: Inventor of the Cherokee Written Language by Diane Shaughnessy

Portrait of Sequoyah (ᏍᏏᏉᏯ) and his syllabary in 1836.
Charles Bird King [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

1824 - The Bureau of Indian Affairs was created.
The Indian Office: Growth and Development of an American Institution, 1865 - 1900 by Paul Stuart
The Office of Indian Affairs, 1824-1880 by Edward E. Hill

1830 - Congress passed the Indian Removal Act.
1831 - Supreme Court ruled that Indian tribes are domestic dependent nations in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia.
1832 - Supreme Court ruled that state laws do not apply to Indian tribes in Worcester v. Georgia. 
1836 - Removal of Creek Indians.
1838 - Cherokee removed via the infamous Trail of Tears.
The Cherokee Removal: a Brief History with Documents by Theda Perdue
Indian Removal: the Emigration of the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians by Grant Foreman
The Politics of Indian Removal: Creek Government and Society in Crisis by Michael D. Green
The Trail of Tears and Indian Removal by Amy H. Sturgis

1851 - United States began the Reservation System to confine Native American tribes to designated tracts of land.
Indians and Indian Agents: the Origins of the Reservation System in California, 1849-1852 by George Harwood Phillips

1864 - Colorado militia attacked a peaceful encampment of Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians massacring approximately 200 to 300 people including women and children.
The Sand Creek Massacre by Stan Hoig

1866-68 - Lakota (also known as the Sioux), Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho forces defeated the US military in Red Cloud's War. The Treaty of Fort Laramie of 1868 formally ended the war and guaranteed Lakota ownership of the Black Hills.
Crazy Horse: a Lakota Life by Kingsley M. Bray
Red Cloud: Warrior-Statesman of the Lakota Sioux by Robert W. Larson

Picture of Red Cloud, Oglala Lakota chief, taken in 1880.
By Charles Milton Bell (http://www.sd4history.com/Unit4/redcloud.htm) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons 

1871 - Congress passed the Indian Appropriations Act ending the treaty system. After passage of this act relations between federal government and Indian tribes were managed through acts of Congress rather than treaties.

1874-75 - US defeated the Comanche in the Red River War, which was fought largely in the Texas panhandle. 
Battles of the Red River War: Archaeological Perspectives on the Indian Campaign of 1874 by J. Brett Cruse
Comanche Empire by Pekka Hämäläinen
Quanah Parker, Comanche Chief by William T. Hagan

1876-77 - US defeated Lakota and their allies in the Great Sioux War, even though Sitting Bull led the Lakota in victory against General George Custer at the Battle of Little Big Horn. 
Battles and Skirmishes of the Great Sioux War, 1876-1877: the Military View by Jerome A. Greene
Lakota and Cheyenne: Indian Views of the Great Sioux War, 1876-1877 by Jerome A. Greene
The Last Days of George Armstrong Custer: the True Story of the Battle of Little Bighorn by Thom Hatch
Sitting Bull and the Paradox of Lakota Nationhood by Gary Clayton Anderson

1877 - US defeated the Nez Percé. 
Chief Joseph & the Flight of the Nez Perce: the Untold Story of an American Tragedy by Kent Nerburn

1886 - US defeated the Apache.
The Apache Wars: the Hunt for Geronimo by Paul Andrew Hutton
Geronimo: the Man, His Time, His Place by Angie Debo

1887 - Congress passed the Dawes Severalty Act. It ended tribal ownership of land and provided tracts to individual Native Americans instead. The result was a drastic reduction of Indian land, much of which was sold to white settlers.

Poster advertising Indian land for sale in 1911.
By United States Department of the Interior [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

1890 - Increasing popularity of Ghost Dance religion caused fear among the white community, which culminated at a massacre of approximately 150 Lakota men, women, and children by the US military at Wounded Knee.
American Carnage: Wounded Knee, 1890 by Jerome A. Greene
The Ghost Dance: Origins of Religion by Weston La Barre
The Lakota Ghost Dance of 1890 by Rani-Henrik Andersson
Wounded Knee Massacre by Marty Gitlin
        - According to the National Archives Records of Right webpage: "To encourage assimilation into white society, in 1890 the government began requiring Native American children to attend schools that were often hundreds of miles away from reservations."
American Indian Education: a History by Jon Allan Reyhner and Jeanne M. Oyawin Eder
Pipestone: My Life in an Indian Boarding School by Adam Fortunate Eagle

1893 - Charles Curtis, of Kansas, became the first Native American to serve in Congress. He was a member of the Kaw tribe. In 1907, he became the first Native American to serve in the Senate, and in 1929 he became the first and only Native American to serve as Vice President of the United States.

1917-18 - Approximately 12,000 Native Americans served in the US military during World War I.
American Indians in World War I: at Home and at War by Thomas A. Britten
North American Indians in the Great War by Susan Applegate Krouse

1924 - Congress passed the Indian Citizenship Act, which granted citizenship to all Native Americans born within the territorial limits of the United States.

Charles Curtis, member of the Kaw Nation, served as Vice President of the United States from 1929-1933.
By Strauss Peyton, Kansas City, Missouri [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

1941-45 - Approximately 25,000 Native Americans served in the US military during World War II, such as the Navajo Code Talkers.
American Indians and World War II: Toward a New Era in Indian Affairs by Alison R. Bernstein
Code Talker Stories by Laura Tohe
The Comanche Code Talkers of World War II by William C. Meadows

1953 - Congress passed a resolution adopting policy of terminating tribal sovereignty.

1968 - The American Indian Movement (AIM) was founded to promote Native American civil rights.
1969-71 Native American activists seized control of the abandoned federal prison Alcatraz.
1973 - Approximately 300 armed Native American activists seized control of Wounded Knee to protest poor living conditions and corrupt officials on the reservation. This led to a 71 day standoff with federal officials which led to the deaths of two activists.
1975 - AIM member Leonard Peltier convicted of murdering two federal agents in a controversial trial.
Laud Hawk: the United States versus the American Indian Movement by Kenneth S. Stern
The Trial of Leonard Peltier by James W. Messerschmidt
Where White Men Fear to Tread: the Autobiography of Russell Means by Russell Means
Wounded Knee 1973: a Personal Account by Stanley David Lyman
         - Indian Self-Determination and Education Act of 1975 granted tribes money to administer federal programs, which began the reversal of the termination policy.

1985 - Wilma Mankiller became the first woman elected chief of the Cherokee Nation.
Beloved Women: the Political Lives of LaDonna Harris and Wilma Mankiller by Sarah Eppler Janda
The Reader's Companion to U.S. Women's History by Wilma Pearl Mankiller

1988 - Congress passed the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act.
Indian Gaming: Tribal Sovereignty and American Politics by W. Dale Mason

1994 - Congress passed the Tribal Self Governance Act.

2009 - The Cobell v. Salazar case was settled. Representatives of several Native American tribes sued the federal government in 1996 for mismanagement of Indian lands and funds. In 2009, the federal government agreed to settle the case and pay over $3 billion in damages.

2016 - Native Americans, concerned about contamination of their water at the Standing Rock Indian Reservation, protested the location of the Dakota Access oil pipeline.

Map of Indian reservations, and other designated areas, as of the 2000 Census.
Created by the US Census Bureau [Public Domain]

Tarleton State University's Dick Smith Library has a wealth of books and other resources relevant to Native American history and culture. Such as these titles: 
1491: New Revelations of the Americas before Columbus by Charles C. Mann
American Indian Food by Linda Murray Berzok
American Indians in U.S. History by Roger L. Nichols
Carvings and Commerce: Model Totem Poles, 1880-2010 by Michael D. Hall
Daily Life During the Indian Wars by Clarissa W. Confer
The Forced Removal of American Indians from the Northeast by David W. Miller
Indian Slavery in Colonial America by Alan Gallay
Malinche, Pocahontas, and Sacagawea: Indian Women as Cultural Intermediaries and National Symbols by Rebecca K. Jager
Native North American Art by Janet Catherine Berlo
Peyote Religion: a History by Omer Call Stewart
The Texas Indians by David La Vere
White Man's Paper Trail: Grand Councils and Treaty-Making on the Central Plains by Stan Hoig

If you need assistance finding resources on this, or any other topic, then please contact us at 254-968-9249 or reference@tarleton.edu.